IGNOU FST CHAPTER 1 Q12

Q)Highlight the characteristics of scientific knowledge.
Ans)Endeavors of science enrich the body of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is never at a standstill. It is a dynamic and an ongoing process. It is an ever growing enterprise which will never end. This is because, in science, there is no single ultimate truth to be achieved after which all scientists can retire. A remarkable feature of scientific knowledge is that it is never complete. The more we add to this knowledge the more questions arise about the unknown mysteries of nature. New information is thus continuously gathered, New theories arise if new facts cannot be explained by the existing ones. Practitioners of science can never lay claim to a complete or ultimate knowledge. We have seen that science is not static. Going a step further we may say that scientific knowledge is also not immutable. Nothing can remain unchallenged in science. In fact some of the most honored scientists are those, who try to alter modify or replace existing theories by providing revolutionary evidence or argument. In this sense science is a self correcting enterprise i.e. it is open to change. Many hypothesis proposed by scientists turned out to be wrong. Science is generated by and idea of free inquiry, the idea that any hypothesis no matter how strange, deserves to be considered on its merits. Thus science is not dogmatic.It does not unreasonably insist on standing by preconceived notions, concepts ideas that have been proved wrong through careful experimentation. Science progresses by disproving. It has no high priests who cannot be questioned. What would be considered highly undesirable in science is the unquestioned acceptance of things as they are. Last but not the least scientific knowledge is objective. That is, scientific results are verifiable and repeatable by anyone anywhere if proper facilities are available. This feature of science of science is related to the ultimate test of any scientific statement; that it should be in accord with the observations of the natural world. Science prefers hard facts to the dearest illusions of scientists. To be accepted, all new ideas must survive rigorous standard of evidence. Sometimes it takes years, or even hundreds of years, before the ideas are verified. Nonetheless in the long run, no brilliant arguments, high authority or aesthetic appeal can save a scientific theory which disagrees with experiment or observation of nature.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 1 Q11

Q)Explain why it is important to know the history of science?
Ans)Science and human affairs are closely linked together, they give rise to what we call as human civilization.Today many questions related to life and happiness worry us. Now how do we answer these questions which are of vital interest to us.One approach is characterized by the famous of Henry Ford, "History is bunk",. According to this approach, all earlier knowledge that is useful is absorbed in the present state of knowledge. What has been left out are only the mistakes about which we should not bother. But this approach does not answer the basic questions.To understand why science is being misused more and more to produce deadly weapons, it is not good enough to blame the scientists who are presently engaged in defence research. Instead we have t look at history in order to show that how knowledge including scientific knowledge has been further used to narrow the interest of dominating groups. Whether in tribal life or in agricultural societies, or in industrial countries, competition for economic domination has led to destructive use of science. Although new discoveries enriched science, they too were employed , in course of time for expanding empires, winning markets and controlling natural resources. And this has always benefited very small sections of people or only a few countries.It can be easily seen that none of the questions which arise out of intimate interaction of science with out lives in general, can be answered without due reference to the history of science. 

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 1 Q13

Q)With an example explain the components that make up the method of science?
Ans)We are aware of the fact that plants make their own food by using sunlight carbon dioxide and water and give off oxygen in this process. Sunlight is make up of different colors visible to the eye which you might have seen in a rainbow. the question we may like to ask is whether light is equally effective in photosynthesis or light of any specific color is more effective than the others. We can have a set of hypothesis as

• Light of all colors is equally effective
• Light of one specific color is more effective than other color.

The nest step is to set up a hypothesis. The experiment can be easily set up. We take three twigs of a water plant like hydrilla, submerge them separately and cover them with bell jars. Then we wrap each bell jar with cellophane papers colored green yellow and red and put the three sets out in the sunlight. Thus each of these twigs is getting light of only one color.We assume that the amount of light reaching the twigs is the same. After some time we observe bubbles coming out of water in the bell jar.The rate at which bubbles come out indicates the rate at which plant is able to make its food. In this experiment there are four factors which are like to vary; the three twigs could be different, the amount of carbon dioxide in the three bell jars and the colors of light they could receive could vary. To test the effect of any of these factors we have to ensure that one of these remains the same.Thus if we are testing for the effect of light of different colors, the twigs, the amount of water and carbon dioxide in all the cases should remain the same in all the three cases. We can take similar twigs from the same plant and we can assume that carbon dioxide is same i each bell jar because they are of equal size. We can also assume that the amount of water  is same in each bell jar. Now if the rates at which gas bubbles come out in the three bell jars are different we can say that this is due to difference in colors.In this case we conclude that the rate is highest in the case of twig receiving red light. Thus we conclude that red light is more effective in food making by plants when compared with green or yellow colored light. This rejects the first hypothesis and gives us a partial proof for the second one. We could continue this experiment and test whether other colors like orange blue etc are more effective than red.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 1 Q10

Q)The theories of science are influenced by its needs, its capacity to absorb and utilize ideas. Explain this statement taking relevant examples from the history of science.
Ans)The practical application of science leads to its growth. But the advance of science depends upon something more than just the practical aspect. An equally important part of science is theory and concepts, which have played an important role in its advance. The theoretical framework links together the practical achievements in science and gives them an intellectual unity. Major advances in science occurred when a particular theory was proved or disproved. Theory is ultimately linked with practice. It has often happened that an important theory became very formal and came to be used mechanically,  without any fresh ideas or new approaches. Then a new contact with practical experience bought forth its limitations. And it had to be modified or rejected, leading to another major advance in science.The level of practical advance of a society depends upon the prevailing social conditions. For example there are scientific methods to prevent birth and population control, but social conditions in such countries do now allow such an application of science, or in agriculture mechanism could increase productivity. But in regions where farmers have small pieces of land mechanization not possible.The theories of science are also influenced by the general intellectual atmosphere in which the scientists work. It often happens that a theory that fits into the general intellectual atmosphere and so is accepted universally, impedes further scientific advance. New theories based on newly discovered facts may be radically different form the existing ones. Therefore they come into conflict with the prevailing ideas and social thought.  This conflict has in the past lead to persecution of scientists. For instance in the seventeenth century, Galileo used a telescope to see and to show others that the moons of the planet Jupiter revolved around it. This was very much like what he was proposing: that the earth revolved around the sun. He could also show that there were hills and valleys on the surface of the moon.  But these ideas were against the prevailing concepts that the sun revolved around the earth and God had created the perfectly spherical moon. This new theory when published , led to the trail of Galileo. Nevertheless, history shows that barring a few exceptions new ideas in science overcame opposition and came to be accepted in due course of time. This not only lead to great leaps in science but also molded the intellectual thinking in general.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 1 Q9

Q)Prepare an account of the social function of science.
Ans)Now we will see the major functions of science, the influence of science in on society and the social factors that impede the growth of science.Science has always played a crucial role in production.Generally science thrived whenever a society had organized itself to increase production of goods and create a degree of satisfaction among its members. The growth of science not only increases production but also leads to improvement in the methods of production. And when methods of production evolve and develop to new stage societies transform. For example when agriculture was the main means of production human habitations were scattered over large rural areas with their own lifestyle. But when factory based production became common industrial towns grew up because a large number of people were working in one place with a life very different form a rural life.The practical application of science leads to its growth. But the advance of science depends upon something more than just the practical aspect. An equally important part of science is theory and concepts, which have played an important role in its advance. The theoretical framework links together the practical achievements in science and gives them an intellectual unity. Major advances in science occurred when a particular theory was proved or disproved. Theory is ultimately linked with practice. It has often happened that an important theory became very formal and came to be used mechanically,  without any fresh ideas or new approaches. Then a new contact with practical experience bought forth its limitations. And it had to be modified or rejected, leading to another major advance in science.The theories of science are also influenced by the general intellectual atmosphere in which the scientists work. It often happens that a theory that fits into the general intellectual atmosphere and so is accepted universally, impedes further scientific advance. New theories based on newly discovered facts may be radically different form the existing ones. Therefore they come into conflict with the prevailing ideas and social thought.  This conflict has in the past lead to persecution of scientists.