IGNOU FST CHAPTER 5 Q1

Q)List the technical inventions and innovations of medieval India
Ans)Medieval India witnessed considerable improvement and changes in the field of technology. While these changes were largely a result of diffusion from outside, some technological innovations also originated in India. Diffusion from outside suggests readiness and ability to imitate, apply and extend the use of technological devices. On the whole there seems to have been no inhibition against technological change.
GEARING
Gearing provides a device for transforming horizontal motion into vertical and vice versa and for increasing or reducing speed. One form of gearing is that of the parallel worm which originated in ancient India.It was received in Kampuchea, in all probability, from India 1000 A.D.Parallel worm gearing was used in wooded cotton-gin in medieval times, it was also applied to sugar milling, with wooded rollers.Right angled pin-drum gearing came with Persian wheel (saqiya), an improved water lifting device received from the Arab world. India had already water lifting devices such as pulley-system(ghirni) with pot-chain(mala). The application of pin-drum gearing to the araghatta, converting it into what is known as the Persian wheel,enabled water to be lifted from the deeper levels, in a continuous flow by use of cattle power.The gear wheel and the shaft were of wood.A horizontal pin drum meshing with a vertical pin wheel, was rotated by cattle power.The persian wheel was being widely used in the Punjab and Sind by the fifteenth century. This improved means of irrigation and probably resulted in the extension of agriculture in the region.
BELT-DRIVE
The belt drive is a comparatively simpler device than gearing for transmission of power and for increasing or decreasing the speed of motion.Belt drive came to India in the form of spinning wheel. The spinning wheel quickened the speed of spinning by about six fold. This must have resulted in reducing the prices of yarn and thus of cloth.The other improvement in the spinning wheel was the addition  of crank handle during the seventeenth century. the belt drive was extended to the diamond cutting drill by the seventeenth century.
WEAVING
Evidence of an improvement in weaving comes from a fifteenth century dictionary which describes the foot paddles used by a weaver to control speed.The addition of treadles to the loom facilitated the use of feet by the weaver for lifting alternately the heddles and freed his hands to throw the shuttle to and fro.This could more than double the rate of weaving.By seventeenth century both colors of multi-color pattern dyeing, namely the use of resist to confine colors to patterns and of mordant to take colors were used.It was perhaps

It was perhaps during the same century that direct block printing, a time saving technique as compared to painting became popular in India.
PAPER MANUFACTURE
Paper was not used in India until the the eleventh century. This Chinese invention of the first century A.D. reached India mainly through Ghorian conquerors. Once introduced its manufacture spread quickly, and by the middle of fourteenth century paper became so cheap that it was used not only for writing but also for wrapping purposes by sweetmeat sellers.
DISTILLATION
The know how of liquid distillation also came to India during the thirteenth century. Though it has been argued by the famous Indian chemist P.C.Ray and recently by the Allchins and Needham on the basis of archeological evidence that liquor distillation was known in Ancient India, the still seems to have been small and inefficient. With thirteenth century came various types of stills (for liquor as well as for rose water) and there is little doubt that the manufacture of distilled spirits received great impetus.(something that makes a process or activity happen or happen more quickly.)
ARCHITECTURE
The architecture style of India under went a drastic change after the Turkish conquest. The sultans and their nobles insisted on having arches and domes and competent Indian masons succeeded in building them. The first surviving example is Balban's Tomb dated 1280, and of dome, Alai Darwaza dated 1305.It was the change in building technology accompanied by lime mortar that made possible the change from trabeate architecture to arcuate style.The principle of true arch seems to have been known in ancient India, but somehow large arches could not be made. However, false arches were constructed in ancient times. Use of lime mortar made it possible to waterproof floors and tanks. Thus, it became possible to bluild tanks and vats as those needed for producing vats such as those needed for producing India's major dye, indigo.
MILITARY TECHNOLOGY
Important changer were introduced in military technology. Rope and wooden stirrups for horsemen were known in India before the thirteenth century.However the iron stirrup seems to have been introduced by the Ghorians and Turks. This greatly improved the combat power of the horsemen. At the same time shoeing improved the performance of horses. Turks also brought with them the cross bow. The crossbow had and additional tube at tight angles to the bow in which the arrow was fitted; the tube gave greater accuracy of direction to the arrow. This tube seems to be a direct precursor of the barrel of the handgun. The next stage of development in military technology was the use of cannon and gun powder. This innovation came to India during the later half of the fifteenth century from the ottoman empire which had itself received it from Europe. By Akbar's time match-locks became common in the imperial arsenal. Some improvements were attempted mainly with a view to do away with the match and strengthen the barrel. Akbar's arsenal succeeded in manufacturing a gun that had most probably a wheel lock. Here the spring released by the  trigger caused a wheel with serrated edges to revolve against a piece4 of pyrites and so send sparks onto the priming man. The flint lock widely used in Europe by the first half of the fifteenth century was adopted in India later on. Manufacture of the barrel of a gun posed a problem for the blacksmith. The barrel had to be very strong to withstand the explosion within it;making the bore and alignment required higher accuracy.In Akbar's arsenal the barrel was made by rolling flat iron sheets and welding the edge.Thereafter the bore was worked from inside.The same technique was used in Europe down to the eighteenth century.India was credited with casting the heaviest bronze cannons in the world at the close of the sixteenth century.But the heavy guns were not necessarily efficient as they lacked mobility as well as accuracy. We find that Akbar paid great attention to the manufacture of lighter guns that could be pulled by a single man.An important device used in the Indian army was the bana or rocket. This was made of bamboo with iron cylinders containing combustible materials at the tip. It was this Indian rocket that inspired the invention of rockets by Congreve in the early nineteenth century.
METAL SCREW
One of the important device that had a great potential in the manufacture of precision instruments and machinery was the metal screw. It came into use in Europe from the middle of the fifteenth century for holding metal pieces together.Its use was of great importance in mechanical clocks. The screw began to be used in India by the second half of the seventeenth century and even it was a less efficient version of the European screw.The grooves were not cut, but wires were soldered around the nail to create the semblance of grooves. This had to be done  owing to the absence of lathes which were used in Europe for cutting grooves. Due to this limitation, the Indian screw did not fit properly.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture has been India's largest industry.The Indian peasants have used seed drill from antiquity;in the seventeenth century they practiced dibbling, that is, dropping of seeds into holes driven into the ground by sticks. They also practiced crop rotation in most areas. The number of crops grown by Indian peasants were quite large. Abu'l Fazl mentions about 50 crops for kharif and 35 for rabi seasons, though their number varied from region to region. The most remarkable quality of the Indian peasants was his readiness to accept new crops. The new crops introduced in the seventeenth century that came from the new world were tobacoo and maize.These crops came to be grown quite widely. By the fifteenth century, the peasants of Bengal took up sericulture and by the seventeenth century Bengal emerged as one of the great silk exporting regions of the world.Horticulture developed considerably under aristocratic patronage.Various types of graftings were introduced. In Kashmir, sweet cherry was obtained by grafting, and the cultivation of apricot was also extended by the same means. During Shah Jahan's time the quality of mangoes was greatly improved by the use of the same technique. On the western coast, the Portuguese introduced mango grafting and Alfanso was the first mango produced in this fashion.Mango grafting seems to have spread in Northern India during the eighteenth century.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 30 Q1

Q)What is artificial intelligence?
Ans)A recent development in computer science is to endow computers with what is called "artificial intelligence". Normal computer can perform complicated calculations and solve logical problems. They can be programmed to play chess.But they have to be given a detailed program of action.They cannot play chess better than the person who made the program.Their only possible advantage is that many possible consequences of a move are quickly sorted to decide upon the actual move.But intelligence is not merely reasoning, it also involves grasping a situation and deciding about how to tackle it. Artificial or computer intelligence therefore requires a computer which can first learn the rule of any signal processing and then apply them to solve the related problem.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 16 Q1

Q)How is photochemical smog formed and what are its effects?
Ans)Photochemical smog, a secondary pollutant, results when two pollutants, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons found in automobile extracts, react with one another in the presence of sunlight to produce nitrogen dioxide, ozone and a compound called PAN(Peroxylacetyle Nitrate), which then appears as a Yellowish Brown Haze. Breathing ozone affects the respiratory and nervous system.It causes respiratory distress affects the eye membranes and simulates tears.It also causes headaches.Ozone damages rubber articles, textiles and discolors paintings. It has been found that smog is harmful to timber. PAN is especially damaging to plants. Plants exposed to PAN exhibit leaf mottling and reduced growth.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 31 Q1(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on "How scientific development is influenced by social needs and perceptions"
Ans)Just as science and technology provide all the "nuts and bolts", as well as many of the ideas that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and atmosphere for science and technology to grow fast or stagnate or even decay!Science and Technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and the value system.They are a part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society.

Motivation for the practical application of science and, hence its growth and use comes from the economic needs of the society. The economic planning and policy of a society determine its social programs and the purposes and goals of a society's production activity, which in turn provides the incentive for scientific growth. However answers to questions like what kind of economic policy will be pursued, whether the social program-mes will be implemented, and to what extent, depends on the political and social organizations of a society.Thus science and technology can be effected by the general policies and social structure of a society.

For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for them. Ideas of people are sought to be molded by the propaganda carried on by radio or television or even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits or the desire to provide fancy goods to and influential section of a population results in one kind of development of science and technology.On the other hand, if a society desires and plans to improve rural life or give priority to public health or provide a certain level of nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and consequent development of science and technology should follow a different path.

Still another example is the question of spending money on weapon of offence or defence that naturally affects science and technology. It is known that the world today is spending Rs. 15 lakh crores (15,00,00,00,00,00,000) on weapons and their development.This not only takes away money needed to feed, clothe or provide shelter to people, but it also prevents the developments of science and technology for constructive purposes.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 28 Q1(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on ways of technology transfer
Ans)Let us see what the features of the import of technology are
Import of Technology
This form of transfer involves transferring the external expertise associated with the capabilities of more developed nations to the lesser developed nations, who require it for accelerated industrialization. This can be done in several ways: through licensing, joint ventures with foreign firms, direct foreign investment, etc. Its efficiency depends on many factors like the supplier's ability and desire to transfer, the recipient's socio-economic and cultural environment and communications processes
Clearly, technology import could be advantageous. A major gain is that it would help to save considerable time, money and energy by skipping the stages which other countries had to pass to achieve the present level of development. But in practice import of technology has a lot of problems and disadvantages.

      The buying of technology may be very expensive. Take, for example the buying of the latest defense          aircraft from France. Though we have saved money on going through the various stages of research and    development, we still have to pay large sums of money to buy these aircraft outright.This is because the price includes the developmental expenditure that France incurred in this connection!So we end up  paying for research and development, and that too in foreign exchange.Further, the R&d within the country also remains undeveloped. 

• Imported technology often comes with restriction or "political strings" attached to it by the supplier. For example, For example India used to import enriched uranium from the united states to use in its fission reactors. A time came when the US government insisted that we sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferaton treaty, otherwise they would stop the supply. India refused to do so and argued that this was not a condition in the original agreement
• The suppler often unloads obsolete technology on the recipient, sometimes at a very high cost. Since the receiving country doesn't have the technology, it may not even know how outdated the offered technology might be.An example of this is the example of automobile industry in which we continue to be saddled with models that are no more in demand in the developed country or in the parent country.Also since the end of the World War II, one of the major industries of industrial development has been that of the domestic conveniences, such as air conditioners, refrigerators and electronic goods like the TV,VCR etc. Once the domestic market in Europe and USA was saturated, markets were created in the developing countries for the finished products, and later for the sale of related technologies.Since in these areas technology change are the quick change ones, what is transferred to the technologies are the quick change ones, what is transferred to the developing countries is outdated.
• The receiving country may have to depend on the donor country, especially in crucial areas like defence equipment.The donor may sell a defence aircraft, but with the condition that the receiver always buys spare and ancillaries from them, the receiver may never become self sufficient.
• When a country imports technology from more than one country for an industry, then the spare parts may not fit into various models.As you know, the technology for Maruti, Fiat and Ambassador cars was imported from three different countries, namely Japan Italy and Britain; and the spare parts don't fit into the others. So the scale of production of spare products will vary, thus increasing the cost of production.
• A multi national corporation of a developed nation may give technological know how to developing nation with the restriction that the knowledge is not to be shared with the other developing nations. This ensures their direct hold over different countries.

Lab to field
It has been the policy of the Government of India, from the time of Independence, to achieve self-relaince by developing indigenous technology in as many areas of industry as possible. We, therefore, had created a chain of laboratories in all areas. The National Research and Development corporation(NRDC) was set up in 1953 for falicitating the transfer of technology from the laboratories of national R&D institutes to the field. These institutes offer their processes for commercial exploitation to NRDC.
If indigenous efforts are not considered adequate at the policy making level of the different ministries, a new policy is formulated for updating technology and for the import of technology from the developed countries.The department of science and technology, planning commission Science and Engineering Research Council and various Scientific Advisory communities attached to the ministries monitor the technological needs of India.
Export of Technology
India had gained experience in various fields of technology. Thus we are in a position to assist a lot of developing nations in the process of technological advancement .India exports technology to a large number of Asain, Middle-Eastern, African and Latin American Nations.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 25 Q2(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on media for open and distance mode of education.
Ans)The role of media in distance education needs specific mention. It is implied that teaching is done from a distance. It is also understood that education is imparted through correspondence, audio-visuals aids, like radio, television and telephone, besides personal contacts. As against a university which enrolls students of a similar age has definite time and is schedule, and is confined to a geographical area or a campus, and 'open university' can cater to all kinds of students-of various ages, living in different and even far paces, who wish to combine education with employment or work at home. It can provide a great variety of courses. Even the pace of learning would be different for the students enrolled in the same course. IGNOU is envisaged as an institution for the entire country. One of the principal objectives of this university is to provide education to those who have been denied opportunity for higher education, wither because they live in remote and rural areas or because of any other handicap, including financial constraints and family obligations.The study centres with audio visual and library facilities form an important part of the university. Here students can meet their academic counselor and discuss their difficuties. Support form radio and television is also important in distance learning.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 22 Q2(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on the prevention of disease in ancient and modern times
Ans)Washing of hands before and after meals, daily bathing, not carrying footwear into living rooms, denial of permission to enter place where food is cooked, especially for persons who have not had a bath. These practices must have evolved through observations over a long period, that certain practices helped in preventing diseases. Isolation of mother and the new born, soon after delivery was a a common custom which also helped in preventing infection of the mother and the baby. Excavation of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have revealed the existence of a covered drainage system and water supply. House drains emptied all waste water into the street drains. They also had arrangements for proper sanitation. Similarly, ancient civilizations of Egypt Greece and China had medical systems. Egyptians had arrangements for public baths and underground drainage.The use of mosquito nets and association of plague with rats were known to them. Hippocrates, the most illustrious Greek physician of the 5th century b.c. examined significance of climate water clothing eating and drinking to health. He was truly a man concerned with hygiene. The ancient Indian and Chinese system of medical care knew about immunization also.Inoculation with live small pox germs to prevent small pox was known to them.In 1848, England promulgated its public health act, which defined the role of the state in people's health and led to a great awareness about sanitary matters. In 1875 the Public Health Act defined the steps for a clean environment and clean water, surroundings houses and for control of offensive trades such as carrying of garbage or excreta. In this way, the spread of many diseases were controlled to a great extent. Clearing away decaying matter and dirt, removing breeding grounds for microbes which foul the air were taken up. However, these measures could not bring effective control of epidemics in urban areas. While these environmental measures were promoting health of people, specific measures to prevent disease in an individual or in the community were also being attempted.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 20 Q2 (Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on the challenges for the agricultural sector in India.
Ans)Modern agriculture aims at producing the maximum amount of food in the minimum amount of time, space and energy so that our increasing population may  have ample food and other agricultural products.The agricultural production of the industrialized nations relies so heavily on non-renewable resources, that there is a clear danger of the oil and coal resources of the earth running out, bringing mankind to ruin. If we modernized agriculture to the same level in the west, we could produce all we need, with perhaps the tenth of the manpower engaged in agriculture. The question is, what would the rest do?Would they be unemployed, if so how will they buy what agriculture would produce?Yes, low input agriculture of the developing countries keeps nations precariously at the subsistence level, with development retarded , and malnutrition rampant, but moving to the extreme of copying the industrialized countries could also be disastrous.Some enthusiasts contend that we should curtail the use of chemical fertilizers. But actually in our country the consumption of chemical fertilizers is one of the lowest in the world, a fraction of what it is in Japan or Europe. Excessive use of fertilizers leads to a good deal of it being washed away by irrigation or rain water, which then pollutes rivers and ponds.As in the case of fertilizers, the average consumption of pesticides in our country is so small that there does not exist a situation similar to that prevailing in developed countries. The high-yielding varieties recently introduced put up such a luxuriant growth that pests are attracted to them as we are attracted to tasty food. Plant-protection chemicals are safe when used strictly according according to scientific recommendation. Indiscriminate and excessive use may, however, leave harmful residues, which may again pollute the environment particularly our water resources.Research on biological control of pests is urgently needed.The other dilemma is that such agriculture, with chemical inputs and strict regimes for watering of crops, can be managed much better by farmers with large fields.Much of the land in our country belongs to small holders who cannot benefit from the recent developments in equal measure.Hence, this agriculture has, among st other things previously mentioned led to rich in rural ares becoming richer, and poor becoming relatively poor.There is also a view that there was no alternative to increasing of total agricultural production. And that the modern technology is neutral to the scale of farming, provided proper practices are adopted by the small farmers too.This seems to be a rather difficult thing in practice, with the prevailing poverty and ignorance among the poor.In a vast country like ours, a 10% decrease in population creates a scare of starvation deaths, and a similar increase in output brings in its wake problems of storage, grain routing, glut in the market and distress selling by farmers. The problems are more acute in the production of perishable commodities like vegetables, fruits, eggs , fish, milk and other products.Once again if processing and packaging can be done with our own technology developed by our research institutions, it would be excellent. Furthermore, if some of the food stuffs processed by foreign companies are shared, we would deprive our own people of the much needed food stuffs like dried vegetables, fruit pulps and juices and fish protein etc. Prices in the Indian market of these products would also go up.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 18 Q1(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on the management of water and forest resources.
Ans)Management of Forest Resources
Considering the ever growing demand of wood and realizing the importance of conserving our forest resources, it has become necessary to find alternate fuels as well as raw materials to manufacture paper, sports, goods, packing cases, furniture and beams used in buildings. Research is going on to discuss alternate resources; in some cases, plastics and composite materials have been developed though they are not widely used as yet. The other way to cultivate quick growing trees berbages in large numbers in selected farms of degraded or wastelands. This well provide us fodder, fuelwood, timber, fruits and seeds. If deforestation has to be stopped and some necessary steps have to be taken:

1. adoption of a scientific method of harvesting forest stocks,
2. developing a mechanism of monitoring forest growth rate and depletion
3. establishing an effective system of fighting forest fires
4. strictly enforcing laws to deal with unauthorized cutting of tree

• Tree Plantation

Plantation, on a mass scale, of fast growing trees such as poplar, casuarina etc should be undertaken. The productivity of tree plantation is found to be greater than that of natural forests. In a well irrigated tree farm, the productivity may be as high as 45 tonnes per hectare per year.

• Social forestry

A farmer can partly meet his needs of wood from the fast growing trees planted within the limits of his village, alongside railway tracks, side roads or canals and streams, boundaries of fields and empty spaces, The aim of social forestry is to meet the needs of fuel, fodder, fruits, timber and other requirements.
Management of water resources
Management of water resources means a program to provide and adequate supply of good quality of water for various used without endangering the life of source or the reserve of water.In other words efforts should be made to see that

1. water of the right quality is available for all kinds of uses, and
2. there is no misuse or wastage of this precious resource

Water management includes recharges of reserves of groundwater and diverting supply from the area of surplus to the region of scarcity.
Recharging of groundwater is the most important aspect of the water management. In the mountains and hills the watersheds are covered with vegetation.The litter-covered soil of the watershed allows infilteration of rain water, which finds its way to the aquifers.
In urban and rural areas, storm water, used water or domestic drains can be fed into pits, trenches or any depression, where it can filter underground. Flood water can be injected into aquifers through a series of deep pits or it can be spread on the fields through a network of ditches
The excess flow of normal as well as flood water can be diverted to areas where there is scarcity of water, This will not only remove the danger of damage caused by floods but will also benefit the regions of scarcity.
By proper treatment of the domestic and municipal waste water, one can supply fit for many industrial and agricultural purposes. The treatment of waste water involves removal of pollutants, germs, and toxic elements as you have already studied in the previous section.

• Desalination of sea water

By use of solar energy,sea water can be distilled, thus fresh water of good quality can be obtained. This method of desalination of sea water is being used in our country   at places like Bhavanagar in Gujrat and Churu in Rajasthan.

• Reducing over consumption

Using more water than necessary is an unpardonable waste of the precious and scarce resource. In our country, a lot of water is wasted due to leaking taps and bad plumbing. There is also need for a check on excessive irrigation.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 13 Q1(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on the evidences of human evolution.
Ans)There are many evidences of human evolution
Paleontological Evidence
Paleontology is a branch of earth sciences, which is essentially a study of plant and animal life in the past goelogical periods, millions of years ago.It deals with the successive plants and animals which have inhabited the earth since the earliest times. Evidence is left in the form of skeletons and bones buried in the rocks. These are known as fossils.Crucial evidence of human evidence of human evolution is provided by the study of these fossils.
Sometimes the buried body and the skeleton of and animal disintegrate entirely, If the surrounding material is sufficiently firm,a cavity may remain, having the exact outlines of the structures that disappeared. Such a cavity is called mold. Similar to molds are the impressions. These are left by extinct objects or parts of the body upon the surrounding material.The impression is made while the surrounding material is soft. like foot prints in clay or lava. Footprints  of extinct animals are also impressions affording valuable information about the animals who made them.
It is important to mention here, that early human fossils that have been found are generally fragmentary and incomplete. This is because only during the last 50,000 years or so man started burying his dead. These later fossils are better preserved and, therefore give us more information. for the earlier period, parts of bones are often the basis of imagining the re-construction of the whole skeleton. The finding of fossils deposits is both a matter of chance and of deliberate excavation in certain regions of the earth.
Archoelogical Evidence
The study of antiquities, especially of pre historic periods is known as archeology. The biological and cultural evolution of man preceded side by side and the two influenced each other. Like the physical remains of man, his cultural deposits also lie buried in the ancient deposits. Often, the two categories of evidence are found together in the same categories of rock. With the passage of time, and the increasing capacity of his brain and development in other bodily organs, man's culture became more and more varied and complex.He learned the use of new materials for making tools and developed new techniques for improving them. The use of tools had a tremendous impact on increased access to food and therefore on cooperative living in colonies. In many areas archaeological remains show reindeer to be the principal source of meat they ate.
Anthropological evidence
Modern humans arose at a time when the earth was going through  a very cold and icy period called the Ice Age, which began about 75,000 years ago and ended about 10,000 years ago. The ice age was at its most severe about 18,000 years ago, a point which coincides with the development of pre historic art, represented by colorful images painted on cave walls and rock shelters.Many thousands of carved and engraved pieces of bone and ivory have been discovered from the same period.A great majority of images are, indeed, of animals we can recognize, especially images of reindeer and bisons are plentiful; while paintings of people are strangely absent.
The general view about agriculture is that, at the end of the last ice age, i.e. about 10,000 years ago there was a dramatic global pattern in the human pattern of living form nodmatic hunting and food gathering to settlements producing food. The discovery that sprinkling of grain could lead to crops and hence to lot of food, must have had a very big impact on social living. Settled living probably led to the increase of population, as also to development of music and dance to occupy the leisure. Language and communication must have developed, as also a capacity to wander and to reflect about nature.
Biochemical Evidence
Darwin had recognized that humans and the great apes shared many physical characteristics.This led him to conclude that human and apes descended from a common stock. Darwin's conclusions were based on the study of fossils and the physical similarities that he had observed. Now, a century later biochemical studies of proteins and the genetic material-DNA showed how good his guess was.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 11 Q1(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on the formation of the solar system
Ans)The theory of the formation of the solar system is based on the on the assumption that the Sun and all the planets were formed from a huge rotating cloud of interstellar gas and dust.For some reasons, the could started contracting. The contracting was hassled by its gravitational pull. The cloud contract. It also stated rotating faster and disc became disc shaped.More and more contracted towards the center of the disc and forming the star to be-the new Sun. The temperature of this star rose due to contraction until it started generating its own energy.Revolving around the Sun was a disc of gas and dust from which the planet condensed.In this revolving disc, the lighter elements were thrown towards the periphery and heavier elements concentrated inwards. As the Sun's energy increased, the gas shells around the inner planets were driven off and only cores of heavier elements in the cloud remained.The outer planets were less effected. Finally, the bright star's radiation removed the last of the system's free gases and a mixed array of planets remained. The smaller, solid ones were near the star and the much larger gaseous ones farther away. the earth was the third planet.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 8 Q1(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on the method of science
Ans)There are various physical and mental operations that make up the method of science
Observations
Observations are our everyday experiences arising from what we see, hear, touch, hear, taste and smell, form a part of common knowledge. For example, we observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west; a ball when thrown up, comes down. A farmer usually separates the good seeds from the bad ones by putting all of them in water.This is based on the observation that the good seeds sink and the bad ones float. Similarly, you can know whether an egg is rotten or good by putting it in a bowl of water. A rotten egg will always float. Artists are also very keen observers of the world around. Their creative art is an expression of these observations, transformed in the light of their own experiences and feelings. These, however, cannot be called scientific observations.
In science, we go beyond just the common observation and experience and try to understand how a phenomenon occurs and why it occurs. Therefore, a scientist has to be clear about 'what' to observe and how to observe it. Further the observations made by scientists have to be correct, and independent of their sentiments and wishes. In science, subjective response must be subordinated to fact. It is in these respects that a scientist differs from an artist or a lay person.
Scientific observations may be about natural events. For example rainfall may be measured for each month for many years, to determine its pattern in a given place. Observations could be about processes created by man. For example in order to increase the efficiency of existing machines, or to develop new machines, observations would have to be made about their design and working. Similarly, new materials like synthetic fibers, or rubber would have to be observed for their wear and tear, or any desired property like fire resistance etc. Observations are also necessary about social phenomena. In order to analyze the socio-economic status of people in a given area or society, observations have to be made regarding the land holdings, incomes educational level, standard of living etc. All these observations are carried out systematically, through carefully designed experiments or surveys, in order to explain natural or social phenomena.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement,put forward on the basis of reasoning, about the things that are being studied.It is an attempt to answer the questions that are posed. A hypothesis is formulated by taking into account all the observations that are known about the phenomenon under investigation. It tries to explain the known or predict the unknown but possible features of the phenomenon.We may describe the hypothesis as an inspired guests, based on reason and experience.We may use inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.
  Inductive Logic
         If we have direct evidence about only a part of the phenomenon, or some objects or situations and if on that basis we infer about the properties, behavior and other features of the whole phenomenon, or the entire group of objects and situations then we are using inductive logic.For example, if we know that the population of a country has doubled in a given period of time, we may use induction to hypothesis that it will double in a given period of time. Again if we study about the shadows of simple objects like triangles, rectangles and circles cast on a wall due to light form a small bulb, we might conclude that light travels in a straight line. The conclusion is a big jump in thinking and it is a sweeping general based on induction.Inductive logic can mislead also: for example to infer that all roses are red,if you see only red roses in a garden is illogical.
  Deductive logic
        Deductive logic maybe considered as the opposite of induction. Here the reasoning is more direct. If we know the statement about the whole class of objects, phenomena or situations then we can logically deduce the same statement about one particular object, phenomenon or situation belonging to that class. Examples of deduction are: roses can be of any color, hence some roses can be red. All birds have wings; therefore; a sparrow which is a bird will have wings. Deductive logic is extensively useful in chemistry. For example a group of chemical salts exhibit some properties or behavior we can safely say that a group of salts belonging to this group will exhibit the same behavior. You could say that deduction may also mislead, because in examples how do we know that a sparrow is a bird or a salt belongs to a group of salts.these facts would have to be established before such deductions can be accepted.
Experiments
Experiment is an essential feature of modern science. Experiments are artificially creates or contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions. The objective sometimes is to mimic nature.This allows the complexity of natural phenomena to be simplified step by step for study.For example, many of us might have used a bicycle tube.By pressing the piston the volume decreases, thereby increasing the pressure and forcing the air into the Tyre.Similarly if we fill a balloon partially with air and leave it in sunlight, the inside becomes warm and expands, thus inflating the balloon. These instances show that the volume of a gas depends upon its both pressure and temperature.If now we want to determine exactly how much change in volume is with a certain rise or fall in pressure or temperature, we will have to conduct an experiment in two steps.In the first step we can keep the temperature constant and observe the changes in volume with pressure. In the second step we will have to keep the gas at constant pressure and record the change in its volume with changing temperature.These experiments were carried out by Robert Boyle and J.AC. Charles.They derived precise mathematical relationships for the change of volume with pressure and temperature, respectively. These experiments are known after them called Boyle's law and Charles' law.
The objective of an experiment may be to observe formula more minutely by the use of sensitive instruments. For example in order to study minute details of cell structure , biologists now use the electron microscope. Sometimes experiments are carried out with a sinister purpose.For example, atom bombs dropped on two cities of Japan in 1945 not only to cause destruction but also study how the buildings collapsed, the extent to which the fires raged, and how radiations killed or injured people.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 4 Q1

Q)Briefly discuss the developments in mathematics and astronomy during Gupta period.
Ans)MATHEMATICS
The Jainas attached great importance to  mathematical proficiency in their religious teaching. Various works deal at great lengths with mensuration, surds, fractions, permutations and combinations, geometry , law of indices, classification of numbers etc. In mensuration, they worked out the relations between the diameter, circumference and arc and chord of a circle. Whey also found out approximations to find approximate value of a surd. Jainas used large and complicated arithmetical factors. They frequently resorted to approximation in dealing with large numbers. When ever the fractional part was greater them 1/2 it was replaced by unitywhen less than 1/2 it was neglected. Jainas speculated about the possible nembers of combinations out of n fundamental categories, taken one at a time, two at a time, three at a time or more at a time. In all the cases they succeeded in finding permutation and combination formulas known to us today.

The jainas could find formulas like

ⁿC₁=n,

ⁿC₂=n(n-1)/1X2

ⁿC₃=n(n-1)(n-2)/1X2X3

ⁿP₁=n

ⁿP₁=n(n-1)

ⁿP₁=n(n-1)(n-2)

An implicit basic formulation  used in all Jaina work on numbers is the modern law of indices:

a^mxaⁿ=a^(m+n),and (a^m)ⁿ=a^mn

where m,n may be integral or fractional.

Algebra in India
As a distinct branch of mathematics, algebra appeared from about the time of Bramagupta(about 598 A.D.). Indian algebraists, psiible for the first time in history, used abbreviations of names and colours or gems or symbolsof unknown quantities, and operations like powers, roots etc.
They had classified algebriac equations into three groups :
i) equations in one unknown,
ii)equations in several unknwons
iii)equations in products of unknowns,
Solutions of linear and quadratic equations were known to them. They also knew how to find solutions for intermediate equations of first and second degree with more than one unknown. Solutions of higher dgree equations were attemted by them.
Numerals
Apart from algebra, possibly the greatest contribution of ancient Indian civilization was the invention of numerals. The necessity for numerals and numerical notation by words and letters had arisen when human beings started dealing with very large and very small numbers such as astronomy and in precision measurement of precious metals. We have already pointed out that the expansion of trade and navigation in this age promoted these areas of science. Human beings could no longer express their trading exchanges, number and distance of stars or even number of days denoting the periodicity of a star by vertical strokes one after the other as was the custom since the time of Harappan civilization. The decimal or the zero system was first found in a  Gujara grant plate inscription of 595 A.D. and later in other stone inscription from Gwalior, Mahipala, Bauka etc. It seems to have been used by the contemporary and later astronomers who constantly improved it. Arabs adopted this system and greatly improved upon the earlier numerals, so much so that today these numerals are called Arab numerals or numbers.
ASTRONOMY
The origin of Indian astronomy is dated to the Vedic times. These have been described in texts called Siddhantas. The Indian astronomy of those times recorded accurate observations of the sun, moon and the planets. It could not build a rational and convincing theory of how the planetary system worked. Aryabhatta born in 476 A.D.,  was the greatest astronomer of the Gupta period. It was his firm belief that the earth was rotating and the heavens resting.He also gave a scientific explanation for the occurrence of eclipses as opposed to the prevailing ideas that Rahu and Ketu caused eclipses.Another great achievement to Aryabhatta's credit was the construction of trigonometric tables.He computed trigonometric tables geometrically and used the values of "sine" and "cosine" in his astronomical calculations. Besides these he developed formulas for the sum of arithmetic and geometric series.Aryabhatta was followed by Varahamihira who recorded the works of Arysbhatta and older astronomical findings in his classical work Brihatasamhita.

IGNOU FST CHAPTER 1 Q13(Assignment 2017)

Q)Detailed account on tradition and social function of science.
Ans) One aspect of scientific endeavor that makes it different from all other aspects of social achievement. That is scientific endeavor, at any at any point of time depends on the existence of previous knowledge. Without the stock of previous knowledge, the methods of the scientist would not be able to achieve much.Further, to be called scientists, scientific workers have to add to previous knowledge, Scientists constantly strive to change the accepted truth. In this sense, they uniquely differ from other professionals such as lawyers, priests and administrators who mainly interpret and use previous knowledge.
Science is cumulative, that is, science at any time is the total result of all that science has been up to date.Further an individual scientist's contribution, howsoever great, is absorbed into the body of scientific knowledge. The individual character of a scientist's work is lost in the general history of science and knowledge.In art and music, the works of past masters are always appreciated and sought after.In science, it is the only current state of knowledge that is which is of utmost importance as the past is fused into the present. Art and religion appeal to personal fate and sentiment. In contrast, scientific and sentiment. In contrast, scientific activity always strives to reduce personal or subjective component and build as objective a basis as possible. Results of science can always be checked, verified and repeated by anybody anywhere. This gives science a "universal" character.
The truth of science lies in its application. The final test of validity lies in testing scientific knowledge in real life, in controlling nature towards some chosen ends.
Now we will see the major functions of science, the influence of science in on society and the social factors that impede the growth of science.Science has always played a crucial role in production.Generally science thrived whenever a society had organized itself to increase production of goods and create a degree of satisfaction among its members. The growth of science not only increases production but also leads to improvement in the methods of production. And when methods of production evolve and develop to new stage societies transform. For example when agriculture was the main means of production human habitations were scattered over large rural areas with their own lifestyle. But when factory based production became common industrial towns grew up because a large number of people were working in one place with a life very different form a rural life.The practical application of science leads to its growth. But the advance of science depends upon something more than just the practical aspect. An equally important part of science is theory and concepts, which have played an important role in its advance. The theoretical framework links together the practical achievements in science and gives them an intellectual unity. Major advances in science occurred when a particular theory was proved or disproved. Theory is ultimately linked with practice. It has often happened that an important theory became very formal and came to be used mechanically,  without any fresh ideas or new approaches. Then a new contact with practical experience bought forth its limitations. And it had to be modified or rejected, leading to another major advance in science.The theories of science are also influenced by the general intellectual atmosphere in which the scientists work. It often happens that a theory that fits into the general intellectual atmosphere and so is accepted universally, impedes further scientific advance. New theories based on newly discovered facts may be radically different form the existing ones. Therefore they come into conflict with the prevailing ideas and social thought.  This conflict has in the past lead to persecution of scientists.