IGNOU FST ASSIGNMENT 2019 Q2

Q)With the help of suitable examples describe the method of science
Ans)There are various physical and mental operations that make up the method of science
Observations
Observations are our everyday experiences arising from what we see, hear, touch, hear, taste and smell, form a part of common knowledge. For example, we observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west; a ball when thrown up, comes down. A farmer usually separates the good seeds from the bad ones by putting all of them in water.This is based on the observation that the good seeds sink and the bad ones float. Similarly, you can know whether an egg is rotten or good by putting it in a bowl of water. A rotten egg will always float. Artists are also very keen observers of the world around. Their creative art is an expression of these observations, transformed in the light of their own experiences and feelings. These, however, cannot be called scientific observations.
In science, we go beyond just the common observation and experience and try to understand how a phenomenon occurs and why it occurs. Therefore, a scientist has to be clear about 'what' to observe and how to observe it. Further the observations made by scientists have to be correct, and independent of their sentiments and wishes. In science, subjective response must be subordinated to fact. It is in these respects that a scientist differs from an artist or a lay person.
Scientific observations may be about natural events. For example rainfall may be measured for each month for many years, to determine its pattern in a given place. Observations could be about processes created by man. For example in order to increase the efficiency of existing machines, or to develop new machines, observations would have to be made about their design and working. Similarly, new materials like synthetic fibers, or rubber would have to be observed for their wear and tear, or any desired property like fire resistance etc. Observations are also necessary about social phenomena. In order to analyze the socio-economic status of people in a given area or society, observations have to be made regarding the land holdings, incomes educational level, standard of living etc. All these observations are carried out systematically, through carefully designed experiments or surveys, in order to explain natural or social phenomena.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement,put forward on the basis of reasoning, about the things that are being studied.It is an attempt to answer the questions that are posed. A hypothesis is formulated by taking into account all the observations that are known about the phenomenon under investigation. It tries to explain the known or predict the unknown but possible features of the phenomenon.We may describe the hypothesis as an inspired guests, based on reason and experience.We may use inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.
  Inductive Logic
         If we have direct evidence about only a part of the phenomenon, or some objects or situations and if on that basis we infer about the properties, behavior and other features of the whole phenomenon, or the entire group of objects and situations then we are using inductive logic.For example, if we know that the population of a country has doubled in a given period of time, we may use induction to hypothesis that it will double in a given period of time. Again if we study about the shadows of simple objects like triangles, rectangles and circles cast on a wall due to light form a small bulb, we might conclude that light travels in a straight line. The conclusion is a big jump in thinking and it is a sweeping general based on induction.Inductive logic can mislead also: for example to infer that all roses are red,if you see only red roses in a garden is illogical.
  Deductive logic
        Deductive logic maybe considered as the opposite of induction. Here the reasoning is more direct. If we know the statement about the whole class of objects, phenomena or situations then we can logically deduce the same statement about one particular object, phenomenon or situation belonging to that class. Examples of deduction are: roses can be of any color, hence some roses can be red. All birds have wings; therefore; a sparrow which is a bird will have wings. Deductive logic is extensively useful in chemistry. For example a group of chemical salts exhibit some properties or behavior we can safely say that a group of salts belonging to this group will exhibit the same behavior. You could say that deduction may also mislead, because in examples how do we know that a sparrow is a bird or a salt belongs to a group of salts.these facts would have to be established before such deductions can be accepted.
Experiments
Experiment is an essential feature of modern science. Experiments are artificially creates or contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions. The objective sometimes is to mimic nature.This allows the complexity of natural phenomena to be simplified step by step for study.For example, many of us might have used a bicycle tube.By pressing the piston the volume decreases, thereby increasing the pressure and forcing the air into the Tyre.Similarly if we fill a balloon partially with air and leave it in sunlight, the inside becomes warm and expands, thus inflating the balloon. These instances show that the volume of a gas depends upon its both pressure and temperature.If now we want to determine exactly how much change in volume is with a certain rise or fall in pressure or temperature, we will have to conduct an experiment in two steps.In the first step we can keep the temperature constant and observe the changes in volume with pressure. In the second step we will have to keep the gas at constant pressure and record the change in its volume with changing temperature.These experiments were carried out by Robert Boyle and J.AC. Charles.They derived precise mathematical relationships for the change of volume with pressure and temperature, respectively. These experiments are known after them called Boyle's law and Charles' law.
The objective of an experiment may be to observe formula more minutely by the use of sensitive instruments. For example in order to study minute details of cell structure , biologists now use the electron microscope. Sometimes experiments are carried out with a sinister purpose.For example, atom bombs dropped on two cities of Japan in 1945 not only to cause destruction but also study how the buildings collapsed, the extent to which the fires raged, and how radiations killed or injured people.

IGNOU FST ASSIGNMENT 2019 Q1

Q)Discuss social organisation and improvements in agriculture, crafts and trade during the Gupta period.
ANS)Social Organisation during Gupta Period 
In the Gupta empire, the main mode of production was agriculture. The Gupta kings continued the land acquisition started by the Mauryans. Samudragupta conquered a number of forest kingdoms in the valleys of the Ganges, Narmada and the Mahanadi. The pattern of land settlement in this period was however very different from different from that of the Maurayns. State control and ownership of the cleared land was greatly reduced and land passed into private ownership. New laws were enacted to allow individuals to administer land and collect taxes, irrespective of whether they tilled the land or not. Most of the Gupta kings irrespective of their individual religious faith, were secular as far as  the state was concerned. Buddhism Jainism and traditional Hindu institutions were all supported by the state through grants and patronage.
Lineage which had determined one's position in society gave way to a certain extent to one's property status. Thus Brahmins lost their pre-eminence.Importance if agricultural and craft production meant some improvement in the condition of the Sudras. In general, what one did in society what one did in society became important. Even Brahmins were obliged to take up occupation other than performance of religious rites.
This relaxation of rigid state control of the previous era had a liberating influence initially, as it encouraged individual initiative. It heralded a certain decline in the hold of the Brahmins ans that of the rigid 'varna' system over agricultural society.
Improvements in Agriculture during Gupta Period

Pepper and spices were grown for sport as well as domestic consumption.A wide variety of crops like rice wheat barley sesame pulses beans and lentils vegetables such as cucumbers onions pumpkin garlic and beetel were grown. New fruits like pears and peaches were introduced for the first time. All this did not take place as a random or as a matter of chance. There were proper manuals which gave information on the type and quality of soil required for each plant, various plant diseases, the distances between plants as well as sowing techniques(e.g. working of the soil before sowing). these manuals also described techniques for processing grain  vegetables and fruits. As a wide variety of soil types had to cultivated, new varieties of agricultural implements also appeared. Weights and designs of ploughshares for different types of soil were fixed and the use of iron for making agricultural implements became widespread. 
Improvements in Crafts during Gupta Period
Rapid strides were made during this era in metallurgical and weaving crafts. Rust proof iron and copper alloys were found and worked into intricate articles for civilian as well military purposes. The quality of the articles was so good that they were widely exported, even as far as Africa. In the design of these articles, there was to an extent Greco-Roman and Central Asian influence.However on the whole they had a local character.
In weaving, techniques were for the making of cotton and silk materials. Manufacture of dyes and their widespread use in coloring textiles came into practice.Indian textile materials especially from Varanasi and Bengal became famous for their light weight and fine texture. The textiles became popular in the west and and became an important commodity for export and trade.
Guilds or 'shernis' of artisans in this new situation of reduced state intervention became powerful and important.They enjoyed a great deal of intervention and drew up contracts among indviduals, and even entered into agreements with state authorities. The 'shernis' borrowed capital from individuals and paid them back with interest.This gave a tremendous to improve the crafts.
Improvements in Trade during Gupta Period
The importance of direct producers became greater as internal and external trade reached unprecedented volume and proportions.
Opening up previous inaccessible and uninhabited regions, organisations of better transport, communication and trade routes helped growth  of  trade. The existence of a huge market, spread over a vast empire, gave rise to extensive circulation of money through a flouring trade.For merchants just as for artisans there existed association which were also known as shernis. The main trade route were based around the rivers Ganges and Indus.The state still supervised the influx and sale of commodities.Internal trade was augmented by rapid development of foreign trade, actively encouraged through the foreign diplomatic contacts established by the Kushanas, the Satavahanas and the Guptas. Improvement in navigation by the Indians, especially by the Indians, especially using the knowledge of monsoons,and a new design of seaworthy ships played an important role in this. The Indians traded with Arabs, the Mediterranean countries, especially Rome, Africa, south-east Asian countries such as Java, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. The existence of associations too helped the growth of trade.